Crop Profile for Peppers in Tennessee

Prepared: February 2005

2004 Fresh market pepper production

The United States produced more than 1,647,900,000 lbs of fresh bell peppers during 2003.These were valued at $30.70 cwt. During 2004, U.S. bell production consisted of 5,200 acres for fresh market and processing. Tennessee was not ranked in national pepper production. Pepper production in Tennessee, consists of sweet, pimento, and hot cultivars. Tennessee produces approximately 750 acres of peppers of which 550 acres are bell types. Almost all the bell peppers produces are for fresh market, and 80 percent of the hot peppers produced in Tennessee are for fresh market. Pimento and other sweet peppers are produced for processing. The state’s contribution to the total U.S. bell pepper production is approximately ten percent. Tennessee’s contribution to other types of pepper production within the U.S. is less than one percent.

All types of peppers grown in Tennessee are produced for fresh market, except pimento types which are processed. Cost varies greatly in pepper production, the highest cost occurs when producers select hybrid seed varieties. These seed have a greater cost than non-hybrid seed. Table 1, lists pepper production and approximate value during 2004.

Table 1. 2004 Tennessee Pepper Production

Bell

500-600

500-600

1,000

$10.80

$10,800

~$5.94

Pimento

50

50

400

9.00

3,600

0.18

Jalapeno

200

200

800

20.00

16,000

32.00

Habanero

25

25

500

10.00

5,000

0.12

Chilies

25

25

750

10.00

7,500

0.12

From May to September 2003, wholesale pricing of green bell peppers ranged from $5.50 to $14.50 with $10.80 as an average price received per 1 1/9 bushel carton. During this same time frame jalapeno peppers ranged from $8.50 to 10.00 with $9.45 as an average price received per ½ and 5/9 bushel crates.

Planting

Most growers have transplanters that are tractor mounted or hand pushed to punch holes in the plastic at the appropriate intervals. If a fumigant is used for soil sterilization, it will be necessary to wait the prescribed time period before punching the plastic to insure good fumigant activity. Once punched, another waiting period is necessary to allow for proper fumigant ventilation before the peppers are planted. If a proper waiting period is not observed, some soil fumigants can destroy pepper transplant roots and cause stunting or plant death.

Plastic Mulch

The use of plastic mulch (plasticulture) in the production of peppers is increasing in Tennessee. Plastic mulch is used to promote earliness, reduce weed and disease pressure, and to conserve moisture and fertilizer.

·        Advantages: Plastic mulch promotes earliness by trapping heat which increases soil temperatures and accelerates growth. Black plastic will prevent the establishment of many in-row weeds. Yellow and purple nutsedges are not controlled by black plastic mulch and suitable fumigants must be applied if nutsedge is a potential problem. Mulch will reduce fertilizer leaching from pepper beds and will conserve moisture by eliminating the soil evaporation component. Furthermore, where fumigants are used, plastic mulch provides a barrier which increases fumigant efficiency. Use of plastic mulch prevents spread of many diseases and reduces splashing of disease organisms onto the plant surface.

·        Disadvantages: Specialized equipment is required to lay plastic mulch which means increased variable costs for custom application or the purchase of this equipment. The cost of plastic removal is an additional expense. In some instances plastic mulch culture has increased yields sufficiently to offset these potential disadvantages.

Types of Plastic

One mil thick embossed black plastic is the least expensive and is most often used in pepper production. Embossed plastic has a reinforced woven component that minimizes the risk of tear from stretching or elongation. This can be important, particularly in plastic double cropping operations where wind entry through a tear may promote further damage to the plastic.

Summer planted pepper crops for fall production cannot tolerate excessively high soil temperatures. Therefore, they are planted on white plastic which temperatures are not as great, and white also aids in reducing thrips damage. For spring production however, white is not recommended since maximum soil warming is needed for optimum production.

Mulched Bed Preparation

Standard bed heights may range from three to five inches. Bed height and width will depend on several factors; soil type, bedding equipment, available plastic, etc. Generally, plastic mulch must be 20 to 24 inches wider than the bed width, so it will cover the sides of the bed and can be tucked under the soil to anchor the plastic. The plastic must fit firmly over the bed to minimize movement by wind and facilitate planting. The plastic mulch is covered at the end of each row. This is particularly important when a fumigant is used. Also, any available opening that allows wind entry may cause problems. Trickle irrigation should be used with plastic mulch, however it is still important to have optimum soil moisture during plastic application. The use of overhead irrigation usually requires the punching of additional holes in the plastic to facilitate water entry. Additional holes may reduce weed control and may increase leaching of nutrients and disease pressure.

Plastic Mulch Fertilization

Preplant fertilizer application is dependent on bed size and planting scheme. On larger beds (five feet or greater) with double rows of peppers, it is advisable to incorporate all phosphorus and micronutrients under the plastic initially. If trickle fertigation is not available, all the nitrogen and potassium should be applied as a preplant. If smaller, single row beds are used, preplant application of all the needed fertilizer may result in salt toxicity. Therefore, sidedressing is required by a liquid injection wheel, through trickle irrigation, or a banded application outside the tucked portion of the bed. If fertigation with trickle irrigation is used, all the P and micronutrients and 1/3 to 1/2 of the N and K should be applied at planting. The remaining N and K is applied through weekly fertigation of approximately 25 pounds KNO₃ and 50 pounds CaNO₃ per acre beginning just after transplant establishment.

Cultivar Types

Bell peppers are warm season crops however the flower parts may be killed from desiccation during hot dry periods, resulting in poor pod set and low yields. Bacteria are another factor which effects bell pepper production. Cultivar characteristics are very important in fresh market production markets. Varieties commonly grown include; X3R Aladdin, Boynton Bell, King Arthur and Enterprize.

Pimento

Pimento peppers are grown almost totally on a contract basis for the processing market. Flower desiccation does not appear to be as sensitive as in bell pepper production. Bacterial diseases can often be a major set back in production when weather conditions favor bacterial development. Commonly grown varieties include; Big Red, Pimento Elite, Pimiento L, and Truhart Perfection.

Jalapeno

Jalapeno peppers are hot types, types commonly grown include Grande and Mitla.

• Field Preparation - fields are normally worked when soil moisture is great enough with a cultivator to remove weeds and assists in creating a good planting soil structure / tilth. A cultivator is also used to incorporated herbicide applications.

• Transplants - transplants are grown in flats in the greenhouse prior to setting in the field.

• Planting - Plants are individually placed by hand (using gloves) into a carousel type planter and placed by the planter into the soil.

• Plastic - Embossed polyethylene plastic is laid over the hilled soil.

• Fumigation - Fumigation materials are normally applied just prior to laying of plastic and five to six weeks prior to transplant. Products used include methyl bromide (MeBr) at 67% MeBr with 33% chloropricrin. Approximately 10% of the 2004 pepper acreage was treated with MeBr.

• Irrigation - Irrigation or drip tape is laid when plastic is placed over the field. Workers attach main irrigation lines to row lines after the rows have been covered with plastic and soil. Each end of the row covered with plastic is covered with soil so fumigants will not escape. Irrigation / fertigation normally begins within a few hours after the plastic covering has been placed on the field. Fields may be entered the day of installation to check for leaking lines. Generally the initial irrigation process will proceed for two days.

• Scouting - Scouting occurs within a few days after planting. Growers will enter the fields one to two days after transplant to inspect plants. They again enter the field the following week on a weekly basis to keep a check on any possible disease, insect or weed infestation. Observations may become more frequent after fruit development. At this time fields may be scouted twice each week to observe any threats from pests.

• Pesticide Application - Applications begin with a preplant incorporated (ppi) application of one or more herbicides, if a soil fumigant is not used. Applications may be made 1 to 10 days prior to transplanting. If fumigants are applied, they may be applied during installation of plastic. Other herbicide applications may be directed to the row middles anytime after planting. Insecticide applications usually begin at transplant and additional products may be applied when scouting thresholds are recommended. Fungicides are applied to the foliage when conditions warrant their use. Usually they are applied when the foliage canopy is full just prior to or reached its peak.

• Harvesting - Harvesting is done by hand. Workers wear cotton or latex gloves to avoid skin irritation. Harvest dates depends on planting dates and weather patterns, however usually occurs from July 7 until October 10.

• Packing
  Bells or sweet peppers are hand packaged into 35 lb 1 1/4 bushel cartons, 30 lb cartons/crates, 28 lb bushel and 1 1/9-bushel cartons/crates, 25 lb cartons, 14 to 15 lb half-bushel cartons, and 11 lb flat cartons. Sorters may or may not wear cotton and/or latex gloves.
  Jalapenos and Chilies are hand packaged into crates or cartons in weights of 16 lb half bushel or 25 lb 5/9-bushel cartons/crates, or loose 20 lb cartons, or loose 10 lb cartons as retail packs. All hot pepper are hand sorted, however sorters do wear latex or plastic disposable gloves. Gloves are essential with these varieties to avoid skin and eye irritation.

Insects (and Mites) like other pests, their populations fluctuate from field to field and from year to year. Insects are grouped into different categories including seedling pests, foliage and pod feeders. Table 2, is an insect loss estimate for 2004 pepper production. Table 3, list insecticides commonly available for use in Tennessee pepper production and Table 4, lists the estimated usage of these pesticides.

Seedling Pests

Cutworms, Black, Variegated (Agrotis ipsilon, Peridroma saucia)

Cutworm damage is particularly abundant in fields where grass sod has previously grown. Newly set pepper plants may be cut down just above the soil surface by cutworms. The majority of cutworms pass the winter in the soil as full-grown larvae.

Damage is done when larvae feed at night on pepper seedlings. Greatest damage is often found in wet areas of the fields. Cutworms may also feed on foliage and pods of mature plants.

Use preventive insecticide treatments on fields with a history of cutworms or on pepper fields following grass sod. Where preventive treatments are deemed unnecessary, use directed sprays for cutworm control when 5 percent of the seedlings have been damaged or destroyed and cutworms are still present. All directed or foliar sprays used for cutworm control should be applied late in the day when cutworms are active.

Chemical controls currently available for use:

Organophosphate insecticides:

·        Naled (Dibrom 7.5): has a 1-day PHI. It is usually applied by ground at the formulation rate range of 1 to 2 pints formulation per acre. Cutworms are not listed on the label, however this product provides fair to good control. This product can be dangerous even if applied correctly. Highly toxic to aquatic organisms. Has Danger as the signal word.

• Disulfoton (Di-syston 15G): has a 90-day PHI. Applied at the formulation rate range of 6.7 to 13.3 lbs per acre for a 32 inch row spacing or 0.1 to 0.2 lbs ai per acre. It is as restricted use pesticide which has Danger as the signal word and a 48 hour REI. Used to control aphids, however may provide fair control of cutworms.

Carbamate insecticides:

·        Methomyl (Lannate 2.4 LV, 90 SP): has a 3-day PHI. Applied at the formulation rate range of 0.75 pints of 2.4LV or 0.5 lb acre or 0.45 lb ai per acre per application. This is a restricted use pesticide with Danger as the signal word. No more than 10 applications per crop or 4.5 lbs ai per acre per season.

·        Carbaryl (Sevin 50WP, 80S, XLR): has a 3-day PHI. Applied at the rate of 2.5 lbs 80S formulation per acre or 2 lbs ai per acre. This product is fairly safe to use. No more than 7 applications per crop. Most effective on cutworm species which feed on the upper portion of the plant.

Other insecticides:

·        Methoxyfenozide (Intrepid 2F): has a 1-day PHI. Applied at the rate range of 4 to 16 floz. or 0.0625 to 0.25 lbs ai per acre per application. No more than 16 floz per application or 64 floz per season. It has a 4 hour REI and Caution as the signal word. Cutworms are not listed on the label, however does provide good control.

Non-chemical pest management tools:

·        Mowing grassy areas surrounding the field a week or two prior to transplant.

·        Not planting in areas where grass sod was previously grown

·        Pheromone traps aid in determining when present

·        Scouting

IPM Management Recommendations:

·        Spray at the lower rates to conserve beneficial organism such as: bigeyed bugs, damsel bugs, flower bugs, and spiders.

·        Rotation of products containing different active ingredients reduces chances of pests developing resistance to the pesticide

Tomato fruitworm or corn earworm (Helicoverpa zea)

Adult moths begin to emerge from overwintering sites in early May and are most active at night. The female may lay 450 to 2,000 eggs singly on host plants. Eggs are laid on open foliage, but are usually densest on younger leaves. Eggs hatch in 2 to 5 days. The larval stage lasts about 2 to 3 weeks and has five or six instars. Smaller larvae tend to occur in new, still-rolled foliage, whereas larger larvae tend to feed on open leaves. All stages tend to feed on flowers, tender new leaves and fruit. Late-stage larvae tunnel 5 to 15 cm into the soil and pupate. The pupal stage lasts about 2 to 3 weeks. Adults then emerge from the soil. Duration from egg to adult emergence is 6 to 8 weeks under field conditions. Corn earworm overwinters as a diapausing pupa in the soil and undergoes several generations each year. Corn earworm larvae feed on all exposed plant parts, particularly the buds and flowers, and may defoliate the plant. Infestations on flowering plants are more likely in the fall after many of the field crops and weeds are unattractive, unsuitable, or unavailable for moths. Moths, attracted to these flowering hosts, may feed on nectar and oviposit on the plant. Moths do not damage the plant.

Chemical controls currently available for use:

Carbamate insecticides:

·        Methomyl (Lannate 2.4 LV, 90 SP): has a 3-day PHI and a 48 hour REI and is a restricted use pesticide with Danger as the signal word. No more than 10 applications per crop may be applied. It is applied at the formulation rate range of 0.75 to 3 pints or 0.225 - 0.9 lbs active ingredient per acre per treatment. No more than 4.5 lbs active ingredient per crop per season may be applied. This pest is not listed on the label, however will provide good control.

Pyrethroid insecticides:

·        Esfenvalerate (Asana XL 0.66): has a 7-day PHI and is applied at the rate of 5.8 to 9.6 fl oz per acre or 0.03 to 0.05 lbs ai per acre. Warning is the signal word and has a 12 hour REI.

·        Cyfluthrin (Baythroid 2): has a 7-day PHI and is applied at the formulation rate range of 1.6 to 2.8 fl.oz. per acre or 0.025 to 0.044 lbs ai per acre per application. No more than 6 applications per season and no more than 0.263 lbs ai per season. Danger is the signal word and it has a 12 hour REI.

Non-OP, non-Carbamate, non-Pyrethroid Insecticides:

·        Spinosad (Spintor 2SC): has a 1-day PHI. Applied at the formulation rate range of 3 to 6 fl oz per acre or 0.046 to 0.09375 lbs ai per acre per application. No more than 0.45 lbs ai per acre per crop may be used. It has a 4-hour REI and Caution is the signal word. CON: This product is fairly expensive.

·        Methoxyfenozide (Intrepid 2F): has a 1-day PHI. Applied at the rate of 10 to 16 fl oz. per acre per application or 0.16 to 0.25 lbs ai per acre per application. Not to exceed 1 lb ai per acre per season. CON: This product is fairly expensive.

·        Indoxacarb (Avaunt): has a 3-day PHI and is applied at the rate of 3.5 fl oz formulation per acre or 0.065 lb ai per acre. Caution is the signal word and has a 12 hour REI. CON: This product is fairly expensive.

·        NOTES: Treatments for tomato fruitworm control should be applied when one percent of fruits are infested with larvae or eggs are easily found.

Non-chemical pest management tools:

·        Scouting

Thrips (Thirps palmi, and others)

Thrips may be present in pepper fields throughout the growing season. Plant injury is caused by both nymphs and adults rasping the leaves and floral tissues and then sucking the exuding sap. This causes reddish, gray or silvery speckled areas on the leaves. With severe infestations these areas can interfere with photosynthesis and result in retarded growth. Heavy infestations during the bloom stage may cause damage to developing pods. Occasionally thrips aggregate on pods well hidden from sprays. This may result in russeting damage from continual feeding during pod development. Applications of insecticides should be made when 20 percent of plants show signs of thrips damage, or when 10 or more thrips per bloom are found. Thrips are very small, so close observation is necessary. An effective in-field survey method is to place several blooms in a vial of alcohol and count the thrips as they die and settle to the bottom.

Chemical controls currently available for use:

Pyrethroid insecticides:

·        Cyfluthrin (Baythroid 2): has a 7-day PHI. Applied at the formulation rate range of 2.1 - 2.8 floz per acre or 0.03 to 0.04 lbs ai per acre per application. It is a restricted use pesticide with Danger as the signal word with a 12 hour REI. Maximum of 0.263 lbs ai per acre per season.

Non-organophosphate, non-carbamate, and non-pyrethroid insecticides:

·        Spinosad (Spin Tor 2SC): has a 1-day PHI. It is a naturalyte insecticide. Is applied at the rat range of 4 to 8 floz/acre or 0.0625 to 0.125 lbs ai per acre. No more than 0.45 lbs ai per acre per season. Has a 4-hour REI. CON: for resistance management the product should not be applied more than three times during a 21 day period. It should be rotated with pesticides with other modes of action.

·        Indoxacarb (Avaunt 30WDG): has a 3-day PHI. It is applied at the rate of 2.5 to 3.5 ounces formulation per acre or 0.045 to 0.065 lbs ai per acre. It has Caution as the signal word and a 12 hour REI. CON: this product is fairly expensive.

Non-chemical pest management tools:

·        Placement of reflective mulches may provide some control

IPM Management Recommendations:

·        For insecticide resistance management, rotate products, never apply more than two consecutive applications of a single product or products containing the same active ingredient or mode of action.

Foliage Feeders

Aphids (Myzus persicae, Aphididae spp.)

Aphids or plant lice are small, soft-bodied insects that may feed on pepper plants from time of planting until last harvest. The most noticeable direct injury is the devitalizing of blossom clusters so that blossoms fall and no peppers set. Aphids cluster in shaded places on the leaves, stems and blossoms. Winged migrants move from field to field spreading virus diseases. Establishment of aphid colonies on pepper is often reduced by wet weather, but during cool, dry weather in the early spring, large numbers of aphids may develop quickly. Feeding by these pests causes the leaves to be crinkled and malformed.

Aphid populations can be assessed by examining terminals and the undersides of leaves. Treatments for aphids in early spring plantings may be postponed until distinct colonies of immature aphids are found. Initiate treatments for aphids in late summer plantings when winged adults are found on young plants.

Chemical controls currently available for use:

Organophosphate insecticides:

·        Malathion (malathion): has a 3-day PHI. Applied at the rate of 2.5 pints per formulation per acre. Has a 12 hour REI and Warning as the signal word on the 5E formulation. Poor efficacy of this product.

·        Dimethoate (Dimethoate 400): Applied at the rate of 8 to 10.66 fl oz formulation per acre per application or 0.25 to 0.33 lbs ai.

·        Acephate (Orthene 75S): has a 7-day PHI. Caution is the signal word, has a 24 hour REI. In bell types no more the 2 lbs ai per acre per season and in non-bell types no more than 1 lb ai per acre per season. Applied at the rate range of 0.66 to 1.33 lbs formulation per acre per application or 0.5 to 1 lb ai.

·        Methomyl (Lannate SP, LV): has a 3-day PHI and a 48 hour REI and is a restricted use pesticide with Danger as the signal word. No more than 10 applications per crop may be applied. It is applied at the SP formulation rate range of 0.5 to 1 lb or 0.45 - 0.9 lbs active ingredient per acre per treatment. No more than 4.5 lbs active ingredient per crop per season may be applied.

Non-OP, non-carbamate, and non-pyrethroid insecticides:

·        Endosulfan (Phazer 3, 50WP): 3E formulation 1 to 2.66 pints or 0.375 to 1 lb ai per acre per application. Has Danger as the signal word and a 24 hour REI.

·        Imidacloprid (Provado 1.6F): Applied at the rate of 3.75 fl oz of formulation per acre per application or 0.046875 lbs ai. For resistant management purposes it is not recommended to follow Admire with this product.

• Thiamethoxam (Actara, Platinum 1.6): has a 30-day PHI and is applied at the formulation rate range of 5 to 8 fl oz per acre or 0.078 to 0.125 lbs active ingredient per acre and not to exceed 0.125 lbs per acre per season for the Platinum formulation. Actara may be applied at the formulation rate of 2 to 3 oz. or 0.03125 to 0.046 lbs ai per acre. It has a 12 hour REI and has Caution as the signal word.

·        NOTES: Aphid control using chemicals is used on a low percentage of the acreage and dimethoate (Cygon) is the favored product because of its systemic activity providing, control up to 3 weeks and is fairly inexpensive.

Non-Chemical Pest Management Tools:

·        Scouting

Colorado Potato Beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata )

Colorado potato beetles may occur in damaging numbers in pepper fields. They lay orange-yellow eggs in groups of a dozen or more on the undersides of leaves; these eggs are often mistaken for lady beetle eggs. Injury to peppers is due to actual consumption of foliage and stems by the chewing adults and larvae. Young plants may be completely defoliated. In vegetable-growing areas where spraying for insect control is a regular practice, insecticides have so reduced the population that it is no longer a serious problem. However, in some areas the control of this insect still demands attention. Colorado potato beetles occur in large numbers and are generally uniformly distributed over an area. Because of their short life cycle and high reproductive capacity, treatments are needed as soon as beetle eggs or larvae are found.

Chemical controls currently available for use:

Carbamate insecticides:

• Carbaryl (Sevin, others): has a 3-day PHI. It is applied at the rate range of 0.25 - 2 lbs ai per acre per treatment. No more than 8 lbs ai per acre per season may be applied. It has Caution as the signal word and a 12 hour REI. Several growers have reported that the product does not provide adequate control due to resistance within the pest population.

Non-organophosphate, non-carbamate and non-pyrethroid insecticides:

·        Endosulfan (Thiodan, Phaser 50WP, 3EC): has a 1 and a 4-day PHI depending on formulation and rate used. The EC formulation has the longer PHI when higher rates are used. Applied at the rate range of 2/3 to 1 1/3 quarts per acre per application or 0.5 to 1 lb per acre per application. No more than 2 applications may be made per acre per season. It has a 24 hour REI and Danger as the signal word.

·        Spinosad (SpinTor 2SC): has a 1-day PHI. It is a naturalyte insecticide. Is applied at the rat range of 3 to 6 floz/acre. No more than 0.45 lbs ai per acre per season. Has a 4-hour REI. CON: for resistance management the product should not be applied more than three times during a 21 day period. It should be rotated with pesticides with other modes of action.

·        Imidacloprid (Provado): Applied at the rate of 3.75 fl oz of formulation per acre per application or 0.046875 lbs ai. For resistant management purposes it is not recommended to follow Admire with this product. Has a 12 hour REI.

• Thiamethoxam (Actara): has a 30-day PHI and is applied at the formulation rate range of 5 to 8 fl oz per acre or 0.078 to 0.125 lbs active ingredient per acre and not to exceed 0.125 lbs per acre per season for the Platinum formulation. Actara may be applied at the formulation rate of 2 to 3 oz. or 0.03125 to 0.046 lbs ai per acre. It has a 12 hour REI and has Caution as the signal word.
• NOTES: For resistance management purposes, products should be rotated between modes of action after two consecutive applications.

Non-chemical pest management tools:

·        Scouting

Flea Beetles (Epitrix spp. )

The name flea beetle applies to a variety of small beetles, with enlarged hind legs, which jump vigorously when disturbed. Their injury consists of small, rounded or irregular holes eaten through or into the leaf. The most common flea beetle on peppers (potato flea beetle) is about 1/16 inch long and nearly a uniform black in color. Flea beetles may attack peppers at any time during the growing season but are often most numerous early in the season.

Chemical controls currently available for use:

Carbamate insecticides:

• Carbaryl (Sevin 80S): has a 3-day PHI. It is applied at the rate range of 0.25 - 2 lbs ai per acre per treatment. No more than 8 lbs ai per acre per season may be applied. It has Caution as the signal word and a 12 hour REI.

Pyrethroid insecticides:

• Permethrin (Ambush, Pounce): may only be used on bell type peppers and has a 3-day PHI. It is a restricted use pesticide which has Caution as the signal word. It has a 12 hour REI. Applied at the rate range of 4 - 8 floz or 0.1 to 0.2 lbs active ingredient per acre per season. No more than 1.6 lbs ai per acre per season may be applied.

Non-organophosphate, non-carbamate and non-pyrethroid insecticides:

• Endosulfan (Phaser 3EC, 50WP): has a 1 and a 4-day PHI. Applied at the rate range of 2/3 to 1 1/3 quarts per acre per application or 0.5 to 1 lb per acre per application. No more than 2 applications may be made per acre per season. It has a 24 hour REI and Danger as the signal word.
• Thiamethoxam (Actara): has a 30-day PHI and is applied at the formulation rate range of 5 to 8 fl oz per acre or 0.078 to 0.125 lbs active ingredient per acre and not to exceed 0.125 lbs per acre per season for the Platinum formulation. Actara may be applied at the formulation rate of 2 to 3 oz. or 0.03125 to 0.046 lbs ai per acre. It has a 12 hour REI and has Caution as the signal word.
• NOTES: Insecticides for control of flea beetles should be applied when flea beetles become numerous and defoliation is greater than 10 percent.

Non-chemical pest management tools:

·        Keeping fields free of weeds is important

·        Late planting also favors growth of host plants over establishment of flea beetles.

·        Destroy plant residues and piles of cull potatoes to prevent beetle buildup.

·        Trash around plant beds where beetles hibernate should be destroyed and beds covered.

Hornworms, Tobacco / Tomato (Manduca sexta, and M. quinquemaculata)

Hornworms are large, green, white-barred worms that may reach a length of three inches. The most distinguishing characteristic about hornworms is the slender horn projecting from the rear of the body. Hornworms eat only the foliage of pepper plants and may cause enough defoliation to allow sun scald of pods. The adult moths do not injure the plant; but deposit spherical translucent eggs, singly on the undersides of leaves.

Chemical controls currently available for use:

Carbamate insecticides:

• Carbaryl (Sevin 80S, XLR, 50WP): has a 3-day PHI. It is applied at the rate range of 0.25 - 2 lbs ai per acre per treatment. No more than 8 lbs ai per acre per season may be applied. It has Caution as the signal word and a 12 hour REI.

Non-organophosphate, non-carbamate and non-pyrethroid insecticides:

·        Bacillus thuringiensis (various): has a 0-day PHI. Dipel 2X is applied at the rate of 0.5 to 1 lb per acre per application. It has a 4 hour REI and Caution as the signal word. It is extremely safe to use

• Endosulfan (Thiodan, Phaser 3EC, 50WP): has a 1 and a 4-day PHI depending on rate and formulation used. The EC formulation is applied at the rate range of 2/3 to 1 1/3 quarts per acre per application or 0.5 to 1 lb per acre per application. No more than 2 applications may be made per acre per season. It has a 24 hour REI and Danger as the signal word.

·        NOTES: Treatments for hornworm control should be applied when one larva is found on 4 percent of the plants examined.

Non-chemical pest management tools:

·        Hand picking in small fields

·        Scouting

·        Monitor for parasites

Leafminers

Leafminer infestations are most often first detected as the slender, white, winding trails caused by the larvae feeding through the interior of leaves. The leaves are greatly weakened and the mines may serve as points where decay and disease may begin. With severe infestations, heavy leaf loss may lead to sun scald of fruits. Adult leafminers are tiny, shiny, black flies with yellow markings. Adult female flies lay eggs within the leaves and white to pale yellow larvae with black mouthparts mine the leaves for about five to seven days.

Chemical controls currently available for use:

Organophosphate insecticides:

• Dimethoate (Dimethoate 400): has a 7-day PHI. It is applied at the formulation rate of 8 to 10.66 fl oz or 0.25 to 0.33 lbs ai per acre per application. It has a 48 hour REI and has Warning as the signal word.

Non-organophosphate, non-carbamate and non-pyrethroid insecticides:

• Cyromazine (Trigard): has a 0-day PHI. Applied at the formulation rate of 2.66 oz or 0.124 lbs ai per acre per treatment. Has Caution as the signal word and a 12 hour REI. No more than 6 applications per season may be applied. It is used to control leafminers only.
• Spinosad (SpinTor 2SC): is a naturalyte insecticide and has a 1-day PHI. Applied at the formulation rate range of 6 - 8 fl oz or 0.09 to 0.125 lbs ai per acre per treatment. It has a 4-hour REI. No more than 0.45 lbs ai per acre per season may be applied. Used to control, European corn borer, hornworms, loopers, tomato fruitworm, Colorado potato beetle, armyworms, thrips and leafminers.
• Emamectin Benzoate (Proclaim ): has a 7-day PHI and is a restricted use pesticide which has Caution as the signal word and has a 48 hour REI. Applied at the formulation rate range of 3.2 - 4.8 oz per acre or 0.01 to 0.015 lbs active ingredient not to exceed 28.8 oz formulation or 0.09 lbs active ingredient per acre per season. Livestock should not be allowed to graze treated areas.

·        NOTES: Begin treatments for leafminer control when populations reach an average of five mines/trifoliate (a trifoliate is the three leaflets at the terminal end of the leaf). This threshold level should be used only when there are at least 25 percent live larvae in the mines.

Non-chemical pest management tools:

·        Scout field for natural enemies

Spider Mites

Leaves of pepper plants infested with spider mites are lightly stipled with pale blotches. In heavy infestations the entire leaf appears light in color, dries up, often turning reddish-brown in blotches or around the edge. The minute 8-legged mites appear as tiny, reddish, greenish, or yellow moving dots on the undersides of leaves. Greatest damage to peppers occurs during dry, hot weather which is favorable for development of extremely large mite populations.

Chemical controls currently available for use:

Non-organophosphate, non-carbamate and non-pyrethroid insecticides:

·        Abamectin (Agri-Mek 0.15E): has a 7-day PHI. Applied at the rate range of 8 to 16 fl oz per acre or 0.009 to 0.019 lb ai per acre.

·        Dicofol (Kelthane 4MF): has a 2-day PHI. Applied at the rate range of 0.75 to 1.5 pints per acre or 0.375 to 0.75 lbs ai per acre. Applicators must be in enclosed cabs.

·        NOTES: Treatments for mite control should be applied when mites become numerous and their damage appears excessive.

Non-chemical pest management tools:

·        Cultivate to remove weeds

·        Mow field edges prior to planting

·        Scouting during hot dry weather conditions

Pod Feeders

European Corn Borer (Ostrinia nubilalis)

European corn borer is one of the most serious and difficult to control insect pest of pepper. Fortunately spring plantings are less subject to infestations than late plantings of bell pepper. Pimento pepper has a long growing season and is more subject to heavy infestations. Females lay eggs in groups of 15 to 35 on the undersides of pepper leaves. The overlapping scale-like eggs hatch in five to seven days. Within two to 12 hours after hatching, the young larvae crawl to the calyx of pepper pods. Once under the calyx, they are protected from insecticides and natural enemies. Young larvae bore through the walls of pepper pods and later feed on the seed core. This feeding causes small fruits to drop prematurely and larger fruits to eventually rot. When rotting begins, larvae usually leave the fruits to infest others. Infested fruits are easily overlooked but can be detected by close examination of the calyx for signs of feeding, entry holes and frass (fecal debris). Larvae may, at times, bore into the stems and branches of pepper plants. Entrance holes are usually found at axils. As the borers tunnel within the stems and branches, fruit loss may result from limb breakage. The number of European corn borer generations per year varies with latitude. Four to five generations may occur. The severity of damage is also variable but heaviest during dry years. Infestations of European corn borer can be detected by examining plants for presence of egg masses on the undersides of leaves.

Chemical controls currently available for use:

Organophosphate insecticides:

·        Acephate (Orthene 75S): has a 7-day PHI. It is applied at the formulation rate range of 1 to 1.33 lbs per acre per application or 0.75 to 1 lb ai per acre per treatment. No more than 2 lbs ai per acre per season may be applied. Caution is the signal word, has a 24 hour REI.

Pyrethroid insecticides:

·        Cyfluthrin (Baythroid 2): has a 7-day PHI and applied at the formulation rate range of 1.6 to 2.8 floz per acre or 0.025 to 0.044 lbs ai per acre. This product is a restricted use pesticide with a 12 hour REI and has Danger as the signal word.

Non-organophosphate, non-carbamate and non-pyrethroid insecticides:

·        Spinosad (Spintor 2SC): is a naturalyte insecticide and has a 1-day PHI. Applied at the formulation rate range of 3 - 6 fl oz or 0.093 to 0.125 lbs ai per acre per treatment. It has a 4-hour REI. No more than 0.45 lbs ai per acre per season may be applied.

·        Methoxyfenozide (Intrepid 2F): has a 1-day PHI. Is applied at the rate range of 4 to 8 floz per acre or 0.0625 to 0.125 lbs ai per acre per application not to exceed 0.25 lbs ai per application and not to exceed 1 lb ai per acre per season. This product has Caution as the signal word and 4 hour REI.

·        NOTES: Insecticide treatments for control of European corn borers should be timed such that larvae are controlled before entering the fruits and stems. Timing is the key to successful control. Treatments made after larvae have entered fruits and stems are of little value, so initiate sprays at the first sign of egg masses.

Non-chemical pest management tools:

·        Scouting

Pepper Maggot (Zonosemata electa)

The pepper maggot is the larval stage of a small fly. The natural food of this insect is a weed known as horsenettle, however serious damage may occur on pepper. Heavy infestations of pepper maggots occur in fields when adult flies are attracted to rotting fruit caused by damage from other pests. They deposit eggs beneath the skin of peppers, and all larval development is completed inside.

Chemical controls currently available for use:

·        Malathion (malathion 5E, 8E): has a 3-day PHI. Applied at the rate of 2.5 pints per formulation per acre. Has a 12 hour REI and Warning as the signal word on the 5E formulation.

·        Carbaryl (Sevin XLR, 50WP, 80S): has a 3-day PHI. It is applied at the rate range of 0.25 - 2 lbs ai per acre per treatment. No more than 8 lbs ai per acre per season may be applied. It has Caution as the signal word and a 12 hour REI. Provides control of several other pests however higher rates are used for cutworm control.

• Dimethoate (dimethoate 400): has a 7-day PHI but may be mechanically harvested 1 day after application. It is applied at the formulation rate of 6 to 10.66 fl oz or 0.25 to 0.33 lbs ai per acre per application. It has a 48 hour REI and has Danger as the signal word. Used to control aphids, leafminers, pepper maggots, and provides some control of grasshoppers and leaf hoppers.

·        NOTES: For control of pepper maggots, treatments should begin when flies are first seen in the field. Repeat applications should be made on a three to four day interval. Products to be used on hot peppers only.

Non-chemical pest management tools:

·        Sanitation

·        Crop rotation

·        Monitoring for presence of adults (present from June to July)

Pepper Weevil (Anthonomus eugenii)

The pepper weevil resembles the cotton boll weevil in general appearance. The pepper weevil is about half as long as the boll weevil. The adult pepper weevil averages about 1/8 inch in length. The mature larva or grub is legless, resembling a white grub, except in size. The adult female weevil deposits eggs either in buds before the blossom opens or in the fruit. Females may lay 100 to 300 eggs over a one to two month period. The egg hatches into a tiny grub in just a few days. The grub usually tunnels its way into the seed mass in the center of the pod. There are several generations per season. The weevils have not been found to overwinter in commercial pepper fields of Tennessee but are brought in on transplants from other areas.

The most important damage is the destruction of blossom buds and immature pods. The crop may be entirely lost if the infestation is severe and early. Infested pods turn yellow (or prematurely red in the case of pimiento peppers) and fall from the plant. Often they are malformed. In many cases the first sign of infestation is a few fallen pods, but by this time serious damage may be already done and within the next 10 days a large part of the crop may fall.

The feeding of grubs within the pods causes the seeds and cores to turn black and often an entire core becomes a mass of decayed tissue and frass. Pods that appear to be sound may show this condition when opened. Feeding punctures in the pods do not materially damage peppers intended for drying, but they appear as dark specks at the bottom of depressed areas and lower the quality of fruit used green or for canning. In the latter case, the punctures appear as black spots when the peppers are cooked. Damage to blossom buds is similar to that done to pods, the larvae feed in the bud and cause it to fall. Feeding punctures in the buds cause them to drop.

Chemical controls currently available for use:

Organophosphate insecticides used:

·        Oxamyl (Vydate): has a 1-day PHI. It is applied at the formulation rate range of 2 - 4 pints (0.5 - 1 lb ai) per acre in transplant water or as a foliar treatment. It has a 48 REI and is a restricted use pesticide with Danger as the signal word. No more than 24 pints formulation per season allowed.

Pyrethroid insecticides used:

·        Permethrin (Ambush 2EC, 25WP, Pounce 3.2EC, 25WP): has a 3-day PHI. It may only be used on bell type peppers. It is a restricted use pesticide which has Caution as the signal word. It has a 12 hour REI. Applied at the rate range of 4 - 8 floz or 0.1 to 0.2 lbs active ingredient per acre per season. No more than 1.6 lbs ai per acre per season may be applied.

Non-chemical pest management tools:

·        Purchase only transplants certified to be weevil free.

·        Plants purchased from southern states should be inspected closely.

·        Growers should not accept any plants with fruiting structures.

·        During the growing season, cut open and examine fallen blossom buds and small fruits for evidence of infestation.

·        Begin treatments for pepper weevils when any fruit are found infested with adult or immature weevils.

Beet Armyworms (Spodoptera exigua)

Beet armyworms may feed on both the foliage and pods of pepper plants. Eggs are laid in masses on the undersides of foliage. After feeding on foliage for a few days, some larvae may migrate to the pods. They may tunnel into the pod under the calyx or eat directly through the pod wall. Begin treatments at the first sign of egg masses.

Chemical controls currently available for use:

Organophosphate insecticides:

• Naled (Dibrom 8, 7.5): has a 1-day PHI. It has a 48 hour REI with Danger as the signal word. Applied at the formulation rate range of 1 to 2 pints or 0.93 to 1.87 lbs active ingredient per acre per application. No more than 6 lbs ai per acre per season may be applied. Should not be applied when temperature exceeds 90^◦F. Provides poor to fair control.

Pyrethroid insecticides:

·        Cyfluthrin (Baythroid 2): has a 7-day PHI and applied at the formulation rate range of 2.1 to 2.8 fl oz per acre or 0.032 to 0.044 lbs ai per acre. This product is a restricted use pesticide with a 12 hour REI and has Danger as the signal word. For control of the 1^st and 2^nd instar.

Non-OP, non-carbamate, non-pyrethroid insecticides:

·        Indoxacarb (Avaunt): has a 3-day PHI. Applied at the rate of 3.5 ounces 30% formulation or 0.065 lbs active ingredient per acre per treatment. No more than 0.26 lbs ai per acre per season. It has a 12 hour REI and Caution is the signal word.

·        Methoxyfenozide (Intrepid 2F): has a 1-day PHI. Is applied at the rate range of 4 to 8 floz per acre or 0.0625 to 0.125 lbs ai per acre per application not to exceed 0.25 lbs ai per application and not to exceed 1 lb ai per acre per season. This product has Caution as the signal word and 4 hour REI.

Non-chemical pest management tools:

·        Scouting

Tarnished Plant Bugs (Lygus lineolaris)

Tarnished plant bugs are sucking bugs that primarily attack the young flower buds causing them to abort. Young flower buds turn yellow to black after tarnished plant bug feeding. Infestations may be heavy in spring plantings and fruit set can be very poor if the bugs are not controlled. Both nymphs and adults feed on pepper. The nymphs are difficult to find unless high numbers are present.

Chemical controls currently available for use:

·        Permethrin (Ambush, Pounce): may only be used on bell type peppers and has a 3-day PHI. It is a restricted use pesticide which has Caution as the signal word. It has a 12 hour REI. Applied at the rate range of 4 - 8 floz or 0.1 to 0.2 lbs active ingredient per acre per season. No more than 1.6 lbs ai per acre per season may be applied. Product does not list tarnished plant bugs on the label under pepper, however should provide fair to good control.

·        NOTES: Treat if one adult per six plants is found.

Non-chemical pest management tools:

• Scouting

Stink bugs, Green stink bug (Acrosternum hilare), Brown stink bug (Euschistus servus),
Southern green stink bug, (Nezara viridula)

All adult stink bugs are shield-shaped. When eggs are first laid, the barrel-shaped eggs of the green stink bug are yellow to green, later turning pink to gray. Brown and green stink bugs have been reported as far north as Canada. In Tennessee, however, the green stink bug is the predominant species. Stink bugs feed on over 52 plants, including native and ornamental trees, shrubs, vines, weeds, and many cultivated crops. The preferred hosts are nearly all wild plants. Stink bugs build up on these hosts and move to other crops late in the season. Stink bugs inflict mechanical injury to the pod as well as transmit the yeast-spot disease organism. The degree of damage caused by this pest depends to some extent on the developmental stage of the seed when it is pierced by the stink bug's needlelike mouthparts. Stink bugs overwinter as adults and become active in spring when temperatures rise above 70 F degrees. Two generations per year occur in Tennessee. Stink bugs generally reach high population levels in late September or early October. Stink bugs have some natural enemies, including several common species of birds.

Chemical controls currently available for use:

Carbamate insecticides used:

·        Carbaryl (Sevin, XLR, 50WP, 80S): has a 3-day PHI. It is applied at the rate range of 0.25 - 2 lbs ai per acre per treatment. No more than 8 lbs ai per acre per season may be applied. It has Caution as the signal word and a 12 hour REI.

Pyrethroid insecticides used:

·        Permethrin (Ambush, Pounce): may only be used on bell type peppers and has a 3-day PHI. It is a restricted use pesticide which has Caution as the signal word. It has a 12 hour REI. Applied at the rate range of 4 - 8 floz or 0.1 to 0.2 lbs active ingredient per acre per season. No more than 1.6 lbs ai per acre per season may be applied. Product does not list tarnished plant bugs on the label under pepper, however should provide fair to good control.

Non-chemical pest management tools:

• Scouting

Table 2. Insect loss estimate for 2004 pepper production*

* Percent loss of peppers due to listed insect

Insecticides

Organophosphates

• Naled (Dibrom 8, 7.5): has a 1-day PHI. It has a 48 hour REI with Danger as the signal word. Applied at the formulation rate range of 1 to 2 pints or 0.93 to 1.87 lbs active ingredient per acre per application. No more than 6 lbs ai per acre per season may be applied. Should not be applied when temperatures exceed 90^◦F. Used to control mites, aphids, cutworms, fleabeetles, leafminers, thrips, loopers, armyworms, whiteflies and various other pests. Cost ranges from $1.31 to 2.62 per acre per application.
• Disulfoton (Di-syston 15G): has a 90-day PHI. Applied at the formulation rate range of 6.7 to 13.3 lbs per acre for a 32 inch row spacing or 0.1 to 0.2 lbs ai per acre. It is as restricted use pesticide which has Danger as the signal word and a 48 hour REI. Used to control aphids and may only provide fair to good control. Cost rnages from $14.34 to 28.46 per acre.
• Acephate (Orthene 75S): has a 7-day PHI. Caution is the signal word, has a 24 hour REI. Is applied at the formulation rate range of 1/3 - 1 1/3 lbs or 0.24 - 1 lb active ingredient per acre. In bell types no more the 2 lbs ai per acre per season and in non-bell types no more than 1 lb ai per acre per season. Used to control grasshoppers, aphids, tobacco hornworms, European corn borer and cabbage loopers. Cost ranges from $2.76 to 11.65 per acre per application.
• Dimethoate (Dimethoate 5, 4E, Cygon): has a 7-day PHI. It is applied at the formulation rate of 6 to 10.66 fl oz or 0.25 to 0.33 lbs ai per acre per application. It has a 48 hour REI and has Danger as the signal word. Used to control aphids, leafminers, pepper maggots, and provides some control of grasshoppers and leaf hoppers. Cost ranges from $22.68 to 30.25 per acre per application.
• Malathion (Malathion 5E, 8E): has a 3-day PHI. Applied at the 5E formulation rate range of 1.25 to 2.5 pints or 0.9375 to 1.5625 lbs ai per acre per application. Warning is the signal word for the 8E formulation and Caution is the signal word for the 5E formulation both have a 12 hour REI. Used to control aphids, and pepper maggots. Cost ranges from $4.08 to 8.16 per acre per application.

Carbamates

• Carbaryl (Sevin 4F): has a 3-day PHI. It is applied at the rate range of 0.25 - 2 lbs ai per acre per treatment. No more than 8 lbs ai per acre per season may be applied. It has Caution as the signal word and a 12 hour REI. It is used to control Colorado potato beetle, European corn borer, armyworms, tomato fruitworm, flea beetles, leafhoppers, tarnished plant bug, cutworms and provides thrips and stink bug suppression. Higher rates are used for cutworm control. Cost ranges from $1.99 to 15.90 per acre per application.
• Oxamyl (Vydate 2): has a 7-day PHI. It is applied at the formulation rate range of 2 - 4 pints (0.5 - 1 lb ai) per acre in transplant water or as a foliar treatment. It has a 48 REI and is a restricted use pesticide with Danger as the signal word. It is used to control nematodes, aphids, leafminers, pepper weevil and thrips. Cost ranges from $17.38 to 34.75 per acre.
• Methomyl (Lannate 2.4): has a 3-day PHI and a 48 hour REI and is a restricted use pesticide with Danger as the signal word. No more than 10 applications per crop may be applied. It is applied at the formulation rate range of 0.75 to 3 pints or 0.225 - 0.9 lbs active ingredient per acre per treatment. No more than 4.5 lbs active ingredient per crop per season may be applied. Used to control armyworms, loopers, aphids, cutworms, and European corn borer. Cost ranges from $5.19 to 20.78 per acre per application.

Pyrethroids

• Permethrin (Ambush, Pounce 3.2): may only be used on bell type peppers and has a 3-day PHI. It is a restricted use pesticide which has Caution as the signal word. It has a 12 hour REI. Applied at the rate range of 4 - 8 floz or 0.1 to 0.2 lbs active ingredient per acre per season. No more than 1.6 lbs ai per acre per season may be applied. Used to control, cabbage loopers, corn earworm, cutworms, flea beetles, pepper weevil, leafminers, and European corn borer. Cost ranges from $5.03 to 10.06 per acre per application.
• Esfenvalerate (Asana XL 0.66): has a 7-day PHI. It is a restricted use pesticide which has Warning as the signal word. Applied at the formulation rate range of 5.8 - 9.6 floz or 0.03 - 0.05 lbs active ingredient per acre per application. Has a 12 hour REI. No more than 0.35 lbs active ingredient per acre per season may be applied Contains xylene as a solvent. Used to control European corn borer, armyworms, fleabeetles, loopers, Colorado potato beetle, pepper weevil. Cost ranges from $4.37 to 7.24 per acre per application.
• Lambda-cyhalothrin (Warrior T): has a 5-day PHI. It has a 24 hour REI and is a restricted use pesticide with Warning as the signal word. Is applied at the formulation rate of 1.92 - 3.84 fl oz per acre or 0.015 - 0.03 lbs ai per acre per treatment. No more than 0.36 lbs ai per acre per season may be applied. Controls cabbage looper, cutworms, hornworms, tomato fruitworm, tobacco budworm, tomato pinworm, armyworms, European corn borer, flea beetles, grasshoppers, stinkbugs, pepper weevil, vegetable weevil, plant bugs and meadow spittlebug. Provides suppression of whiteflies, leafminers, aphids, adult pepper weevils, and spider mites. Cost ranges from $4.14 to 8.28 per acre per application.
• Cyfluthrin (Baythroid 2): has a 7-day PHI and applied at the rate range of 1.6 to 2.8 floz per acre or 0.025 to 0.044 lbs ai per acre. This product is a restricted use pesticide with a 12 hour REI and has Danger as the signal word. It is used to control corn earworm, European corn borer, leafhoppers, stink bugs, armyworms, loopers, flea beetles, pepper weevil, thrips (except Thrips palmi), leafminer and whiteflies. Cost ranges from $4.35 to 7.26 per acre per application.
• Zeta-cypermethrin (Fury 1.5E, Mustang Max): has a 1-day PHI, and is applied at the rate range of 2.4 to 4.3 fl oz formulation or 0.028 - 0.05 lbs active ingredient per acre per application no more than 0.3 lbs ai per acre per season or more than 25.8 floz. formulation per acre per season. This product is a restricted use pesticide which has Warning as the signal word and is used for control of armyworms, Colorado potato beetle, flea beetles, cutworms, leafminers, leafhoppers, pepper maggot - adults, pepper weevil, tomato fruitworm, tobacco budworm, plant bug species, aphids, whitefly, grasshoppers, Lygus bugs, stink bugs. Cost ranges from $3.85 to 6.89 per acre per application.

Non-Organophosphate, non-carbamate, and non-pyrethroid insecticides

• Thiamethoxam (Actara, Platinum 2): is a nicotinoid insecticide which has a 30-day PHI and is applied at the formulation rate range of 5 to 8 fl oz per acre or 0.078 to 0.125 lbs active ingredient per acre. Application should not to exceed 0.125 lbs per acre per season for the Platinum formulation. Actara may be applied at the formulation rate of 2 to 4 oz. or 0.03125 to 0.0625 lbs ai per acre. It has a 12 hour REI and has Caution as the signal word. Controls aphids, flea beetles, Colorado potato beetle, and whiteflies. Cost ranges from $48.10 to 76.96 per acre for Platinum. Cost is significantly less for Actara applications.
• Imidacloprid (Admire 2, Provado 1.6): is a nicotinoid insecticide which has a 21-day PHI for soil applications. Caution is the signal word, has a 12 hour REI. Applied at the rate range of 16 to 32 fl. oz. per acre per application for the Admire formulation. Provado is applied at the rate of 3.75 floz per acre per application with no more than 0.5 lbs ai per acre per season of either formulation. Used to control aphids, Colorado potato beetle, flea beetles, leafhoppers, thrips, and whiteflies. Cost ranges from $73.31 to 146.63 per acre for Admire. Cost is significantly less using the Provado formulation, however does not provide as long control.
• Bacillus thuringiensis (Agree, Biobit HP, Crymax, Deliver, Dipel, Javelin, Lepinox, XenTari): has a 0-day PHI. Depending on the formulation, has different recommended rates. Most products have a 4 hour REI and Caution as the signal word. This product is extremely safe to use and targets lepidopterous type pests. Various pricing depending on product using.
• Abamectin (Agri-Mek 0.15EC): is a restricted use pesticide which has Warning as the signal word. It has a 7-day PHI and is applied at the rate range of 8 - 16 fl oz per acre not to exceed 48 fl oz It has a 12 hour REI Should not make more than 2 sequential applications for resistant management purposes. Use for control of spidermites, leafminers and thrips. Cost ranges from $44.13 to 88.25 per acre per application.
• Indoxacarb (Avaunt): is an oxadiazine insecticide and has a 3-day PHI. Applied at the rate range of 2.5 to 3.5 ounces 30% formulation or 0.045 to 0.065 lbs active ingredient per acre per treatment. No more than 0.26 lbs ai per acre per season. It has a 12 hour REI and Caution is the signal word. Used to control tomato fruitworm, armyworms, and loopers.
• Azadirachtin (Aza-direct, Ecozin, Neemix 4.5): is a botanical insecticide which has a 0-day PHI. Applied at the formulation rate range of 4 to 16 ounces per acre per treatment. Has a 12 hour REI. Is and insect growth regulator which has Warning as the signal word and contains 0.34 lbs ai per gallon. Used to control tomato fruitworm, leafhoppers, leafminers, thrips, weevils, grubs, beetles, Lygus bug, armyworms, aphids, hornworms, tobacco budworm, loopers, flea beetles and whiteflies.
• Neem extract (Trilogy): has a 0-day PHI. It has a 4 hour REI and has Caution as the signal word. No more than 5 gallons formulation per acre per application may be used. Used to control spider mites, mites and aphids and suppresses thrips and whiteflies.
• Emamectin benzoate (Proclaim): is a macrocyclic lactone insecticide which has a 7-day PHI. It is a restricted use pesticide which has Caution as the signal word and has a 48 hour REI. Applied at the formulation rate range of 2.4 - 4.8 fl oz per acre or 0.007 to 0.015 lbs active ingredient not to exceed 28.8 oz formulation or 0.09 lbs active ingredient per acre per season. Livestock should not be allowed to graze treated areas. Used to control armyworms, cabbage looper, tobacco budworm, hornworms, tomato fruitworm, and leafminers.
• Tebufenozide (Confirm 2F): is an insect growth regulator. It has a 7-day PHI and applied at the formulation rate range of 6 to 8 floz or 0.09 to 0.12 lbs ai per acre per application, with no more than 0.96 lbs ai per acre per season. It has Caution as the signal word and a 4 hour REI. Used to control, loopers, armyworms, European corn borer, and hornworms. Good candidate for insect resistance management. Cost ranges from $8.00 to 16.00 per acre per application.
• Pymetrozine (Fulfill 50%): has a 0-day PHI and is applied at the formulation rate of 2.75 oz per acre. It is a pyridine-azomethione insecticide. It has Caution as the signal word and a 12 hour REI. It is used to control aphids and whiteflies. Pricing not available.
• Cyromazine (Trigard 75%): has a 0-day PHI. Is an insect growth regulator. It is applied at the rate of 2.66 oz or 0.124 lbs ai per acre per treatment. Has Caution as the signal word and a 12 hour REI. No more than 6 applications per season may be applied. It is used to control leafminers. Pricing not available.
• Endosulfan (Thiodan, Phaser 3EC): has a 1 and a 4-day PHI. It is classified as an organochlorine insecticide. Applied at the rate range of 2/3 to 1 1/3 quarts per acre per application or 0.5 to 1 lb per acre per application. No more than 2 applications may be made per acre per season. It has a 24 hour REI and Danger as the signal word. Used to control aphids, flea beetles, armyworms, pepper maggot, whiteflies, hornworms, and leafhoppers. Cost ranges from $4.96 to 11.56 per acre per application.
• Spinosad (Success, SpinTor 2SC): is a naturalyte insecticide and has a 1-day PHI. Applied at the formulation rate range of 1.5 - 8 fl oz or 0.02 to 0.125 lbs ai per acre per treatment. It has a 4-hour REI. No more than 0.45 lbs ai per acre per season may be applied. Used to control, European corn borer, hornworms, loopers, tomato fruitworm, Colorado potato beetle, armyworms, thrips and leafminers. Cost ranges from $6.63 to 35.38 per acre per application.
• Pyriproxyfen (Knack 0.86): has a 14-day PHI. It is applied at the formulation rate range of 6 - 10 fl oz per acre or 0.04 to 0.067 lbs active ingredient per acre. It is an insect growth regulator which has Caution as the signal word and a 12 hour REI. No more than 0.134 lbs ai per acre per season or two applications may be applied. Crops not listed on the label may not be planted for 30 days after the final application. Often mixed with Orthene. Used to control whiteflies, aphids, cabbage looper, and hornworms. Cost ranges from $22.96 to 38.28 per acre per application.
• Dicofol (Kelthane 4): has a 2-day PHI. It is classified as an organochlorine insecticide. It is applied at the formulation rate range of 0.75 to 1.5 pints per acre or 0.375 to 0.75 lbs active ingredient per acre. It has Caution as the signal word and a 12 hour REI. No more than 2 applications per season should be applied and no more than 0.8 lbs active ingredient per season. It is used to control various mites. Cost ranges from $3.56 to 7.13 per acre per application.
• Methoxyfenozide (Intrepid 2F): is an insect growth regulator that acts as a molting inhibitor and has a 1-day PHI. Is applied at the rate range of 4 to 16 floz per acre or 0.0625 to 0.25 lbs ai per acre per application not to exceed 0.25 lbs ai per application and not to exceed 1 lb ai per acre per season. This product has Caution as the signal word and 4 hour REI. Provides control of loopers, European corn borer, armyworms, hornworms, and tomato fruitworm. Is in the diacylhydrazine class of insecticides. Pricing not available.
• Petroleum oils (Mite-E-Oil, various) has 0-day PHI. Applied at the formulation rate range of 1-2 gallons per acre per treatment. Caution as the signal word and a 4 hour REI. It is used to control aphids, leafminers, beetle larvae and various caterpillars. This product is fairly inexpensive, however must be applied frequently to obtain effective control. Pricing varies greatly from approximately $2.00 to 10.00 per application depending on source used.

Weed Control

Weed control is one of the most serious concerns to commercial pepper growers. It is a serious problem in both transplant seed beds and in fields. A cost-effective weed control program should be designed before establishing a plant bed or planting transplants to the field.

Factors Affecting Weed Control

Several factors should be considered before venturing into pepper production. If peppers are grown in seedbeds for transplants, weed control is different from that of peppers grown in the field. For the production of transplants from seedbeds, select a sterilized soil mixture or use a land area that does not have a history of troublesome weeds or weeds that will be resistant to chemical control methods.

When selecting areas for pepper production, production sites should not have a history of troublesome weeds, especially weeds that can be expected to germinate in mid to late growing season. Some of these weeds include: sicklepod, yellow and purple nutsedge, Florida beggarweed, jimson weed, cocklebur and morningglories. Also, avoid areas with an infestation of perennial weeds such as common bermudagrass and johnsongrass. Weed identification is important since the total weed control strategy will depend upon weed species and the degree of weed infestation. A good approach is to know the weed history of the field and if possible draw a weed map showing areas with the infestation of different weed species. By having a weed map, control strategies can be planned more effectively.

Crop rotation is also an important practice that helps maintain land free from troublesome weeds. However, during the process of rotation, avoid land treated with herbicides to which peppers may be sensitive. Many of the herbicides used for weed control in agronomic crops (peanuts, soybeans, corn, cotton, grain sorghum) have not been thoroughly tested for pepper sensitivity. The residual soil life, particularly of the newer compounds, has not been fully established. It is imperative that a record of the herbicides used on fields to be planted to peppers be kept and the herbicide labels checked for crop rotation guidelines. Several herbicides do have the potential to cause severe injury or stand loss in pepper if sufficient rotation time is not allowed.

Some hand hoeing is done to reduce weed pressure. Cultivation is done at the time of fertilizer side-dressing and is accomplished two to three times before the plants fill out. Mowing of row middles occurs if weeds become large.

Herbicides

Most commonly used products include napropamide and trifluralin as pre-emergent herbicides. Glyphosate and paraquat are applied with sprayer shields in row middles to control various weeds with paraquat more frequently used than glyphosate products. Poast and Select are commonly used for grass control.

• Bensulide (Prefar-4.8E): is an organophosphorus herbicide which is applied at the rate range of 1 - 1.5 gallons or 4.8 to 7.2 lbs ai per acre per season. It has Warning as the signal word. Used for control of crabgrass, barnyard grass, foxtails, chickweed, lambsquarter, mustards, ragweed, sheperdspurse, redroot pigweed, and purslane. Cost may range from $44 to $66 depending on rate used. Con: Does not control established weeds. Product should only be applied once in 12 months.
• Glyphosate (Roundup, Glyphosate, Touchdown): is an organophosphorus herbicide which is applied at the rate of 2 to 4 lbs ai per acre per application. Most formulations have a 4 hour REI, however a few have a 12 hour REI. This product is a non-selective, systemic herbicide which is directed towards row middles and may not be applied over the row. This product is not an organophosphate ester but often called an N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine herbicide. Cost ranges from $5 to $10 per acre per treatment since row middles would be treated. This product is normally applied once or twice per season.
• Clethodim (Select 2EC): is a cyclohexene oxime herbicide which has a 20-day PHI has a 24 hour REI. Applied at the formulation rate range of 6 to 8 fl oz or 0.09 to 0.125 lbs ai per acre per application. Has Warning as the signal word. Used to control grassy weeds. Cost per acre treatment ranges from $8.83 to 11.78 per gallon.
• Clomazone (Command 3ME): is a chlorophenoxy acid or ester herbicide which has a 65-day PHI. It is applied at the formulation rate range of 1 1/3 to 2 2/3 pints or 0.5 to 1 lb ai per acre per application. It has a 12 hour REI and Caution as the signal word. Livestock must not graze in treated areas for 9 months after application. Used to control velvetleaf, Jimsonweed, lambsquarter, redweed, purslane, common ragweed, cocklebur, Florida beggarweed, and provides some control of morningglories, spurge, redroot and smooth pigweeds. Con: may not be applied to banana peppers. Cost ranges from $14.48 to 28.96 per acre.
• DCPA (Dacthal W-75): is a phthalic acid herbicide which has no PHI listed on the label. It is normally applied at rate range of 1.75 to 3 lbs formulation or 1.31 to 2.25 lbs ai per acre per season. It has Caution as the signal word. Applied 4 to 6 weeks after transplanting peppers. Plants must be 4 to 6 inches in height prior to application. Used to control crabgrass, foxtails, barnyardgrass, nightshades, copperleaf, and goosegrass. Livestock may not graze in treated areas. Ranges from $120 to $144.00 per acre per application.
• Ethephon (Ethrel): is a plant growth regulator which has a 5-day PHI. It is applied at the formulation rate of 1.25 to 4 pints or 0.31 to 1lb ai per acre. It has a 48 hour REI with Danger as the signal word. Should not be applied when temperatures exceed 95^◦F or below 60^◦F. No more than 1 lb ai per acre per season should be applied. This product is used to aid in harvest.
• Gibberillic Acid (ProGibb 4%, 2X): no PHI was listed on the label. It is applied at rate of 1 to 3 fl oz formulation or 1 to 3 grams ai per acre. This product is a plant growth regulator which has a 12 hour REI and Warning as the signal word. Normally applied two weeks after transplant.
• Oxyfluorfen (Galigan 2E, Goal 2XL): is a diphenyl ether herbicide which is a pre-emergent and post emergent broadleaf and grassy weed herbicide used for fallow bed or non-food production purposes. Use rate is 5 - 6 lbs ai per acre per seasons. It has a 24 hour REI and Warning as the signal word. Some varieties are sensitive to this product. Provides fair to good control of lambsquarters, purslane and amaranths. Price ranges from $242 to $290 per acre per application.
• Paraquat dichloride (Gramoxzone, Cyclone Max): is a quanternary ammonium herbicide which has a 30-day PHI and a 12 hour REI. Product is a non-selective, contact herbicide used as a burn down prior to planting or used between rows with a shield sprayer. Con: extremely toxic to applicator. Applicator must were appropriate protection. Cost could range from $27.57 to 50.55 if the material was broadcasted on an acre; however cost normally ranges from $10 to 18.00 per acre since treatments are applied in row middles and in spray rows.
• Sethoxydim (Poast 1.5): is a cyclohexene oxime herbicide which has a 20-day PHI. Applied at the rate range of 1.5 to 4.5 pints or 0.28 to 0.84- lbs ai per acre per treatment. It has a 12 hour REI and Warning as the signal word. It is used to control grassy weeds. Cost ranges from $12.92 to 38.76 per acre per application.
• Trifuralin (Treflan 4E, others): is a dinitroaniline herbicide which is applied at 1 to 2 pts or 0.5 to 1 lb ai per acre before transplanting and must be incorporate immediately. Specific rates will vary for different soil textures and incorporation practices. Has Warning as the signal word. Sorghum, millet, or oats may not be sowed for 18 months after application. Pro: Cost ranges from $3.38 to 6.75 per acre. Con: must be incorporated within 2 to 3 inches of soil within 8 hours of application.
• Napropamide (Devrinol 50DF): in an amide herbicide which is applied at 8 lbs formulation or 4 lbs ai per acre per season. It has Warning as the signal word. Does not control established weeds. Crops not specified on the label have a 12 month waiting period. Used to control annual bluegrass, barnyard grass, foxtail, crabgrass, lambsquarter, goosegrass, purslane, pigweed, common ragweed and fall panicum. Con: Product is extremely expensive. Cost for an application is $64.56 per acre.
• Halosulfuron-methyl (Sandea 75): has a 30-day PHI. It is applied at the formulation rate range of 0.5 to 1 oz per acre or 0.023 to 0.046 lbs ai per acre. Applicators should not exceed 2 oz formulation per acre over a 12 month period. Has Caution as the signal word and a 12 hour REI. Cost ranges from $17 to $34 per acre per application.

Table 8. Estimated herbicide usage in pepper production

1. Mullins et al. 2001. Performance of Bell Pepper Cultivars, Middle Tennessee Experiment Station.
   http://bioengr.ag.utk.edu/Extension/ExtProg/Vegetable/year/VegInitReport01/20performance_of_bell_pepper_culti.htm

2. Bost, S., F. Hale, D. Robinson, A. Straw, J. Wills. 2004. 2004 Commercial Vegetable Disease, Insect and Weed Control. University of Tennessee, Extension Service, PB1282.

3. USDA. 2004. Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Shipments, FVAS-4 for 2003.
   http://www.ams.usda.gov/fv/mncs/shipsumm03.PDF

4. Mullins, C. A. 2000. Performance of Bell Pepper Cultivars, Plateau Experiment Station, University of Tennessee.
   http://bioengr.ag.utk.edu/Extension/ExtProg/Vegetable/year/VegInitReport00/20performance_of_bell_pepper_culti.htm.

5. Mullins, C.A., D. Onks, R. Thompson, A.B. Smith. 2001. Performance of Jalapeno Pepper Cultivars, Middle Tennessee Experiment Station, University of Tennessee.
   http://bioengr.ag.utk.edu/Extension/ExtProg/Vegetable/year/VegInitReport01/22performance_of_jalapeno_pepper_c.htm

6. Buchanan, J.R. and T. L. Cross. 2003. Irrigation Cost Analysis Handbook. University of Tennessee, Extension Service, PB1721.
   http://www.utextension.utk.edu/publications/pbfiles/PB1721.pdf

7. World Pepper Production
   http://www.fiery-foods.com/zine-industry/world.html

8. Vegetables and Melons Situation and Outlook Yearbook. VSG 2004,
   http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/vgs/Jul04/VGS2004.pdf

9. Vegetable Pricing USDA
   http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/vgs/tables/price.pdf

10. NASS - Vegetables
    http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/reports/nassr/fruit/pvg-bb/2004/vege1004.pdf